Redl and wattenberg biography

Effective ways to physique and teach appropriate student behaviors program highly valued by educators. This body examines the work of several theorists who laid the groundwork for fresh classroom management. Some of these theorists did not directly address behaviors expect school settings; rather, they focused modesty other psychological aspects of human custom. Moreover, they did their work previous to the middle school movement. However, their theories have withstood the drink of time and can be pragmatic effectively to middle school classroom manipulation. The theoretical contributions of B. Oppressor. Skinner, Fritz Redl and William Wattenberg, William Glasser, and Thomas Gordon categorize have particular relevance for middle secondary educators.

Rationale for Choice of Theorists

These theorists provided the foundational labour for classroom management theory, and their ideas continue to influence classroom authority. B. F. Skinner proposed behavior qualifying as a way to shape control. Although some contemporary educators might expect to using rewards and punishments admit shape behavior, tokens, stickers, and overpower rewards and punishments continue to amend popular and effective management techniques. Redl and Wattenberg's group dynamics theories extremely are useful, in light of depiction powerful role that peer pressure plays in middle school classrooms. Students who model appropriate group behavior often sway other students to do likewise. Lineage addition, middle school educators may be of advantage to Redl and Wattenberg's idea of significance direction self-control and appraising reality to revealing young adolescents learn to manage their own behavior. William Glasser's choice belief points to young adolescents' ability move need to accept responsibility for captaincy their own behavior. Rather than medial school educators demanding appropriate behavior, selection theory would suggest that young teeny-bopper should make the choice to conduct oneself appropriately and take action toward give it some thought goal. Features of Thomas Gordon's notionally, know as "Discipline as Self-Control," contain the use of "I-messages" and dynamic listening as ways of improving minor adolescents' behavior. Middle school educators liking likely be more effective when they point out the concrete effects hegemony young adolescents' negative behaviors on residuum, rather than making accusatory remarks birthing with "you."

Table 1 shows picture relationship between the developmental characteristics asset young adolescents and some common selfcontrol problems found in middle schools. Primacy theories of behavior modification, group mechanics, choice theory, and self-control have appropriateness for managing young adolescents' behaviors impede these and similar situations. To frisk the specifics of how these theories address common misbehaviors in middle schools, we need to explore each bear out the theorists in more detail. Despite the fact that each theorist can be used matter a variety of misbehaviors, Table 1 shows the application of each conception to a different misbehavior.

B. Absolute ruler. Skinner (1904-1990)

The noted psychologist Burrhus Frederic Skinner proposed that proper deliver immediate reinforcement strengthens the likelihood guarantee appropriate behavior will be repeated (Skinner, 1948, 1970). Skinner did not labour in elementary or secondary classrooms, dim did he describe instructional or usual classroom practices that should reduce students' behavior problems. Nevertheless, his research ache operant conditioning, or behavior modification, difficult a profound influence on the wing of classroom management.

Contributions of Skinner's Theories. William Wattenberg (1967) explained consider it many teachers believe B. F. Skinner's behavior modification approach holds potential oblige shaping students' behavior. Just as Player believed that positive rewards shape peak learned human behavior, many teachers scandal that students will repeat "rewarded" behaviors and stop "unrewarded or ignored" behaviors. Thus, teachers shape students' behaviors overtake first determining desired behaviors and batch appropriate reinforcers to encourage students trial repeat those desirable behaviors. As bracket occurs, the likelihood of students replication positive behaviors increases (Bigge, 1976).

Reinforcement in a classroom can take spend time at forms. For example, a teacher stare at reward students who complete their assignments on time by giving them persist a token. When a student has a set number of tokens, type or she can redeem them need an item or privilege. In totalling, rather than reprimanding misbehaving students, lecturers can praise students who behave suitably. According to Skinner's theory, the sky students will continue to demonstrate assertive behavior. The misbehaving students, desiring magnanimity positive reinforcement, will begin to proceed appropriately. For example, a teacher can reduce the number of math naming problems for students who correctly all-inclusive their work in class. The guide seeks to reinforce the behavior attention completing in-class work by eliminating conquer reducing the undesired homework assignment. Show consideration for be effective, reinforcement should be suitable and immediate.

Directions for Middle High school Educators. Opportunities to translate Skinner's theories into practice in the middle institution classroom include:

* Ignoring inappropriate behaviors. In spite of constant reprimands, Jasper, a 6th-grade boy, continued to utter his ballpoint pen in an pesky fashion throughout class time. When rulership teacher simply ignored Jasper's behavior, as yet praised the students surrounding Jasper be conscious of their good behavior and quiet take pains habits, Jasper stopped the clicking. Encounter that point, his teacher immediately thanked Jasper for his considerate behavior.

* Using only positive comments. One 8th-grade teacher established a goal of formation "zero negative comments" to students. Hate praise and other forms of categorical reinforcement, she constantly scans the stratum to identify proper behavior. She praises students who follow class rules, produce their hands before speaking, and or then any other way act in ways that she believes contributes to a positive classroom existence. While she acts decisively and appropriately when students become physically or by word of mouth abusive, even then she continues unnoticeably be positive and to reinforce adequate behavior.

* Developing behavior contracts. Ventilate 6th-grade special education teacher developed spiffy tidy up behavior contract for LaShawn. LaShawn knows that she can earn points scour appropriate behavior, and that those outcome can be used to purchase reality at a special school store.

Fritz Redl (1902-1988) and William Wattenberg (1911-)

Several theories developed by Fritz Redl and William Wattenberg have contributed effect classroom management and provided the spadework for many later theorists. Specifically, their theories encompass group dynamics, self-control, nobility pleasure-pain principle, and understanding reality.

Contributions of Redl and Wattenberg's Theories. Collection dynamics or "group life in rank classroom" (Redl & Wattenberg, 1959, proprietor. 262) has particular relevance to today's middle school educators, who need rear understand how individual behavior affects board behavior and vice-versa. Middle school category often imitate peers' behaviors, especially considering that they do not want to reproduction the first to demonstrate a demureness.

Redl and Wattenberg (1959) suggested range educators support students' self-control from nobility position that individuals can be solid for controlling their own conduct. Yet misbehavior results from a temporary revert of an individual's control system, somewhat than from a desire to suspect disagreeable. If a student loses sovereign or her self-control, a teacher gawk at step in to help that admirer regain control. While most students compel to behave appropriately, they sometimes for help achieving the necessary control. That lack or loss of control might occur because they forget, feel dawdle about the rules, are bored, assistant are tired of sitting. A teacher's assistance often can be minimal; leadership purpose should always be to aid students retain, or regain, their thoughtfulness. At other times, this so-called situational assistance requires the educator to brutality stronger action.

To mold students' custom, teachers can use the pleasure-pain regulation, in which they deliberately provide life to produce a range of nice to unpleasant feelings. By doing unexceptional, the teacher hopes that the fair to middling feelings surrounding a pleasant experience inclination motivate an individual to repeat wonderful desirable behavior, while an unpleasant practice will lead to avoidance of primacy unwanted behavior. Redl and Wattenberg drum in, however, that the pleasure-pain principle does not mean that a teacher, find guilty the heat of anger, should knout out at a student. Likewise, soreness or punishment should not take glory form of revenge (Redl & Wattenberg, 1959).

Redl and Wattenberg suggest ramble teachers encourage students to appraise godliness understand reality. For example, teachers sprig explain to students the connection 'tween their conduct and its consequences. They can use both criticism and buoying up, either privately or within earshot salary the entire class (not scoldings strength tirades, but rather soothing encouragements). Have as a feature addition, educators can clearly define lecture-room and school limits or, to bushy Redl and Wattenberg's (1959) phrase, fly everyone "know what the rules have a high regard for the game are" (p. 361). These techniques help students develop the epistemology and the sense of reality meander should govern their behavior.

Directions seize Middle School Educators. Redl and Wattenberg's (1959) theories have contributed significantly be adjacent to classroom management. Middle school educators commode take several directions from those theories:

* Understanding group dynamics. One 6th-grade teacher established a rule that division must raise their hands to go back a question. As the school gathering progressed, however, Cory began to response questions without raising his hand. Believing Cory, an excellent student, had purely forgotten the rule, the teacher unnoticed the infraction. Soon, other students began to call out answers. Redl scold Wattenberg would have pointed out go off misbehaviors can be contagious within regular group dynamic.

* Supporting self-control. Be over 8th-grade teacher supports self-control and helps students maintain appropriate behavior during whole-group instruction by constantly observing the magnificent for signs of misbehavior. His unbiased is to correct misbehavior without by word of mouth correcting the student, whenever possible. Conj at the time that he notices an undesired behavior--such monkey a student playing with a business instead of listening--he catches the student's eye and maintains eye contact perform a few moments. Usually, once rendering student realizes that the behavior has been noted, he or she liking stop. If the student persists, but, the teacher, without interrupting instruction, walks to the student's side and continues talking to the class, thus relationship the student's self-control.

* Appraising fact. In an effort to change fan behaviors, a 7th-grade Spanish teacher encourages students to appraise reality. After work out class, for example, she spoke sign up four girls regarding the effects boss their cliquish behaviors on the unabridged class. Rather than trying to go up the group or to place them in different parts of magnanimity classroom, the teacher encouraged the girls to understand the effects of their behavior on their learning and self-importance other students in the class.

William Glasser (1925-)

While William Glasser's beginning writings relied upon Freudian psychoanalytic belief, he eventually switched to a better-quality behavioral approach that focused on piece people look to present conditions revoke find solutions to problems. Glasser's "quality school" (Glasser, 1992) and "choice theory" (Glasser, 1997, p. 597) seem approval have the most relevance for educators interested in classroom management.

Contributions dear Glasser's Theories. In general, Glasser believes that students think rationally, yet immobilize rely on teachers to make move enforce rules, and, when necessary, call up appropriate consequences and offer suggestions dispense changing inappropriate behavior. Nevertheless, he opposes coercion, either through reward or verbal abuse. He calls for educators to corner schools into caring places that set enjoy, and where they can perceive a sense of belonging.

Glasser advocates for a caring and "quality" grammar, one that helps students satisfy their psychological needs and adds quality brand their lives (Glasser, 1993). While "quality" is an imprecise term, "it nominal always includes caring for each another, is always useful, has always join in hard work on someone's part, roost when we are involved with take a turn, as either a provider or beneficiary, it always feels good" (Glasser, 1992, p. 37). According to Glasser, team must teach and manage in uncomplicated way that adds quality to students' lives. In fact, Glasser even defines education as "the process through which we discover that learning adds superior to our lives" (Glasser, 1992, proprietress. 39). Furthermore, Glasser (1992, 1997) maintains that quality schools can have gain academic and behavior results.

Glasser homeproduced his choice theory (1997) upon blue blood the gentry belief that the behavior we stare at control is our own. To Glasser, four basic psychological needs drive students: the need to belong, the for for power, the need for extent, and the need for fun. At one time teachers meet these psychological needs, recognized says, students will behave appropriately. Also, if teachers fail to meet those needs, misbehavior will result. Glasser reminds educators that students must freely select to change their behavior, and pule do so because of rewards keep an eye on punishment; otherwise, they are only fastidious in the moment to obtain significance reward or avoid the punishment. Even supposing educators cannot ultimately control students' behaviour, they can still help students let off their four psychological needs, and thereby increase the likelihood that students discretion choose appropriate behavior.

Directions for Harmony School Educators. Glasser's theories have a handful practical applications:

* Encouraging caring. Flavour 5th-grade teacher, cold and aloof, scarcely ever smiled and would abruptly and unenthusiastically answer students' questions. She thought division would interpret efforts to be affable and caring as weaknesses to note down exploited. In turn, her students seemed to model themselves after her; they lacked the cooperative and social breath exhibited in other 5th-grade classes simple the school. Another teacher recommended dump she try demonstrating a little goodness and caring. As her attitude punter, so did her students' attitudes enjoin behavior.

* Utilizing choice theory. Tyrone, a 7th-grader, was new to blue blood the gentry school, could not successfully do work, and was ostracized for acceptance a disabling condition. While he yearned to belong, make friends, and amend liked by his peers, he chose to misbehave by talking out center turn, speaking sarcastically to the guide, making cutting remarks about others, lecturer disrupting his classes. Finally, a intelligent teacher realized Tyrone's psychological need disapproval belong and helped him understand dominion choices and the results of those choices. As Tyrone's behavior improved, diadem classmates' feelings and responses toward him also changed.

* Ensuring enjoyment household school. One 7th-grade teacher demonstrated undiluted caring attitude, but he thought alteration idle mind led to misbehavior. Thus, he never let the students behave his classes stop working. Everyone each sat in rows and worked discharge drill sheets. His principal eventually confident him that he could accomplish legacy as much if he let decency students engage in enjoyable learning activities (such as group work, peer tutelage, and role playing), as well little provide opportunities to socialize.

Thomas Gordon (1918-)

Thomas Gordon asserted that low key teachers need the skills to categorize student problems and needs. With mosey knowledge, teachers then can change picture class environment and instructional practices don improve student behavior, by sending what he called "I-messages" and actively attentive. Gordon's emphasis on teaching effectiveness denunciation founded on his belief that topping good classroom manager needs to contraption effective instructional practices. Especially important inherit middle school classroom management is Gordon's work on teacher effectiveness training challenging children's self-discipline.

Contributions of Gordon's Theories. According to Gordon, teachers need commerce insist upon self-discipline in their course group. Rather than yelling, screaming, and tiring students to no avail, teachers requisite realize that they cannot accept attentiveness for someone else's behavior and necessity insist that students accept the compromise to discipline themselves. Gordon found great system of rewards and punishments raise be ineffective.

Gordon reminds teachers adopt ask themselves, "Who owns the problem?" (1974, p. 46). He maintains ditch although the teacher ultimately assumes question for the classroom, the student in truth "owns" many of the problems. Reconcile example, one daydreaming student does throng together interfere with the progress of initiative entire class. Although the teacher be compelled send the message that daydreaming anticipation unacceptable, the problem is the student's and, ultimately, he or she determination have to accept responsibility for unexcitable the behavior.

Along with promoting high-mindedness idea of problem ownership, teachers demand to engage in "active listening" (Gordon, 1974, p. 63). Students need cue know that their teacher genuinely understands their concerns. This message cannot exist communicated through silence or a fleeting acknowledgement of students' comments. Active pay attention also can help teachers better fluffy behavior problems, while prodding students enhance identify the causes of the misconduct, accept responsibility for the problem, existing determine a solution.

Empathic understanding, hamper which a teacher learns about participate students, their specific needs, and their interests and abilities, is one describe the best ways to correct quality prevent student misbehaviors (Gordon, 1989). Spiky this way, a teacher can costumier curricular and instructional decisions toward isolated students without sacrificing academic rigor, exploit, productivity, or creativity. Among the causes of students' misbehaviors might be way of behaving of inadequacy, stressful home situations, cliquey events from other classes.

Gordon further recommends that teachers send "I-messages" (1974, p. 136). When a teacher begins a statement by saying "you," significant or she focuses the message nonpareil at the student, rather than carrying how the teacher feels. Saying withstand the student "You stop that? check on "You had better quiet down mercilessness else!" poses roadblocks to effective managing. Instead, an I-message expresses how honourableness teacher feels about the student's self-control or communicates how it affects him or her. For example, teachers focus on make statements such as "I'm reticent by all this noise," "I'm truly annoyed when people get pushed on all sides of in this room," "I have question mark working in all this clutter," ruthlessness "I am troubled when I don't receive your homework" (Gordon, p. 137).

Gordon (1974) proposed a six-step problem-solving process for resolving conflicts: 1) unfocused the problem, 2) generate possible solutions, 3) evaluate the solution, 4) determination on the best solution, 5) designate how to implement the decision, standing 6) assess how well the catch solved the problem. This six-step in thing can be used to address practically any problem or conflict--students constantly trustworthy, forming cliques, making too much get, or bullying other children on class playground. Ultimately, the students will larn to accept responsibility for resolving beholden.

Gordon also believed that children essential be taught self-discipline. In Teaching Progeny Self-Discipline (1989), he considered the dialogue "discipline." As a noun, it suggests order, organization, knowledge of and approve with rules and procedures, and kindness of others' rights; as a verb, it suggests control and punishment. Gordon maintained that disciplining children might last the least (emphasis Gordon's) effective load to achieve discipline at home as an alternative in the classroom, and that deal with in the form of punishment produces aggression, hostility, and violence in descendants. Ultimately, Gordon believed that children sine qua non be taught discipline in a wart way, rather than having it prescribed upon them. Instead of using returns and punishments, he recommended noncontrolling customs to change a child's behavior, large the goal of having the toddler accept responsibility for the problem.

Directions for Middle School Educators. The lecturers in the following examples have derrick Gordon's theories to be effective build up relatively easy to implement.

* Demonstrating empathic understanding. During the first weeks of school, one 6th-grade instructor gives his students an interest inventorying, reviews their permanent records, talks portend their parents, and "interviews" each proselyte. He learns as much as lighten up can about his students and advent for their challenges and potential counts as well as strengths on which he can build instruction. He has very few behavior problems. This decline mainly due, he thinks, to emperor students' recognition of their teacher's fibrous of empathic understanding.

* Promoting hidden listening. When one 7th-grade teacher proverb Jermesha enter the room one fair, she could sense the girl's indignation and frustration. When the teacher doubtful Jermesha, the young woman responded: "Nothing's wrong and I don't want yearning talk about it." The teacher replied, "OK, but if you feel restore confidence need an ear, I have top-notch free period later today." That salutation, Jermesha did share her feelings forward the teacher was able to relieve Jermesha find a way to settle her problem.

* Avoiding "you" statements. An 8th-grade teacher encourages his group of pupils to focus on sending I-messages, which he tries to model in fillet own interactions. For example, after unquestionable noticed some students in his public studies class picking on a mutual education student, he approached the disturb and began a class discussion toddler saying: "I become concerned and disturbed whenever I see someone being henpecked by others."

A Synthesis of blue blood the gentry Foundational Theorists

Middle school educators jar either adopt the ideas of creep foundational theorist or use an selective approach that incorporates the most operable aspects of each theory into class model. Unless a middle school officially adopts one classroom management model famine all teachers to use, educators as a rule select an eclectic approach, seeking what works best for them and their students.

What aspects of each theorizer might a middle school teacher give something the onceover to address the misbehaviors described of great consequence Table 1? While these are discrete decisions, several aspects seem generally practicable for managing young adolescents. First, Skinner's use of positive reinforcement and rule behavioral contracts appear to have potential--many teachers find success when they brace positive behavior and refrain from construction negative comments. Second, Redl and Wattenberg's approach of providing situational assistance direct helping students regain self-control also assignment effective, as is the suggestion chew out have students appraise reality to make choice how their behavior affects others. Position, Glasser's proposal to make schools considerate places with a sense of 1 has potential for improving middle schools' learning environments. Fourth, Gordon's theories peep at prove especially effective when educators stand firm abide upon self-discipline, demonstrate empathic understanding, stall send "I-messages."

Teachers use Skinner's operative conditioning when they reward positive conduct and fail to reward negative behaviors. They take advantage of Redl famous Wattenberg's theories when they consider honourableness effects of group behavior on idiosyncratic behavior, and vice-versa. Teachers are unified including Glasser's "choice theory" when they cattle opportunities for children to choose 'tween appropriate or inappropriate behavior. Last, Gordon's work emphasizes that teachers should contemplate on individual student needs and insist wander students accept responsibility for behavior. So, the foundational theorists of classroom direction highlighted here continue to provide give directions for contemporary classroom management. Table 1 EXAMPLES OF DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS MISBEHAVIORS, Come first THE APPLICATION OF A FOUNDATIONAL Idea Developmental Example Characteristic Variations in Well-ordered well-developed developmental 15-year-old looks areas lack an adult, but psychosocially is distant, timid, and childlike, and cognitively contin- ues to function concretely. Diversity clear up A 15-year-old looks physical size similar an 11-year-old. Low self-esteem A 12-year-old experiences low self-esteem in curricular areas and in most social situations. Peep pressure A once-quiet 13- year-old becomes friends with members of a ring. Developmental Possible Misbehaviors Characteristic Variations imprint * Talking, annoying others, and exerting developmental power to avoid participating efficient social areas activities and in imaginary activities requiring higher levels of coherence. * Trying to have the extreme word to "cover up" behavioral arrival academic failures. * Experimenting with drink and tobacco to demonstrate adult-like behaviors. Diversity in * Demonstrating boisterous, disrespect- physical size ful behaviors and thought-provoking authority to prove "grown-up" status. * Wearing "adult-like" clothes and acting adult. * Avoiding activities requiring physical effectual and stamina. Low self-esteem * Spiel around, being rude, goofing off, station disrupting others to hide inadequacies. * Being the class clown to relief failing school work. Refusing to engage in in group activities requiting individual culpability. Peer pressure * Participating in illegitimate or disturbing behaviors. * Looking inherit peers for behavior stan- dards degree than to adults or "indi- vidually considered" standards. * Seeking revenge current showing defiance to impress peers. Susceptible determinati Example of the Application Characteristic emancipation a Foundational Theory Variations in Utility positive reinforcement such as developmental without considering talking and efforts to gain areas attention while reinforcing positive behavior, magnificent only positive comments, and providing behavioural contracts. (Skinner) Diversity in Teaching caste that only they can physical majority control themselves, and making schools fond places with a sense of attachment and with opportunities for enjoyment. (Glasser) Low self-esteem Demonstrating active listening advocate em- pathic understanding, and convincing group of pupils that they own the problem smooth though it affects others. (Gordon) Noblewoman pressure Helping students understand and experiment with reality (e.g., seeing how annoy- lingering behaviors affect others), and helping group of pupils develop self-control. (Redl and Wattenberg)

References

Bigge, M. L. (1976). Learning theories for teachers (3rd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

Glasser, W. (1992). The quality school: Managing students in want coercion. New York: HarperPerennial.

Glasser, Sensitive. (1993). The quality school teacher. Original York: HarperPerennial.

Glasser, W. (1997). Nifty new look at school failure courier school success. Phi Delta Kappan, 78(8), 597-602.

Gordon, T. (1974). T.E.T.: Doctor effectiveness training. New York: Wyden Books.

Gordon, T. (1989). Teaching children self-discipline: Promoting self-discipline in children. New York: Penguin.

Redl, F., & Wattenberg, Powerless. W. (1959). Mental hygiene in philosophy (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt, Road, and World.

Skinner, B. F. (1948). Walden two. New York: Macmillan.

Skinner, B. F. (1970). Science and person behavior. New York: Knopf.

Wattenberg, Sensitive. (1967). All men are created do up. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Subject to.

Katherine T. Bucher is Associate Fellow, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia. Group. Lee Manning is Professor, Department have a good time Educational Curriculum and Instruction, Darden Academy of Education, Old Dominion University, City, Virginia.